Finite and Non-Finite Verb

• Finite Verbs (sometimes called main verbs) are verb from suitable for use in predicates in that they carry inflections or other formal characteristics limiting their number (singular/plural), persons, and tense (past / present etc). Finite verbs can function on their own as the core of an independent sentence. 
• In English, as in most related languages, only verbs in certain moods are finite. These include:
• the indicative mood (expressing a state of affairs); e.g., “The bulldozer demolished the restaurant,” “The leaves were yellow and stiff.”
• the imperative mood (giving a command).
• the subjunctive mood (expressing something that might or might not be the state of affairs, depending on some other part of the sentence); nearly extinct in English.

Example

• I walked, they walk, and she walk = are finite verbs.

* (to) walk is an infinitive.

• I lived in Germany.

* ‘I’ is the subject. ‘lived’ describes what the subject did. ‘lived’ is a finite.

The finite verbs are highlighted in the following sentences:
The bear caught a salmon in the stream.
Who ate the pie?
Stop!

• A nonfinite verb form – such as a participle, infinitive, or gerund – is not limited by by time (see tense), person, and number. 
• Verb forms that are not finite include:
• the infinitive
• Participles (e.g., “The broken window…”, “The wheezing gentleman…”)
• gerunds and gerundives

• In linguistics, a non-finite verb (or a verbal) is a verb form that is not limited by a subject; and more generally, it is not fully inflected by categories that are marked inflectionally in language, such as tense, aspect, mood, number, gender, and person. As a result, a non-finite verb cannot generally serve as the main verb in an independent clause; rather, it heads a non-finite clause.
• By some accounts, a non-finite verb acts simultaneously as a verb and as another part of speech; it can take adverbs and certain kinds of verb arguments, producing a verbal phrase (i.e., non-finite clause), and this phrase then plays a different role — usually noun, adjective, or adverb — in a greater clause. This is the reason for the term verbal; non-finite verbs have traditionally been classified as verbal nouns, verbal adjectives, or verbal adverbs.
• English has three kinds of verbal: participles, which function as adjectives; gerunds, which function as nouns; and infinitives, which have noun-like, adjective-like, and adverb-like functions. Each of these is also used in various common constructs; for example, the past participle is used in forming the perfect aspect (to have done).

Other kinds of verbals, such as supine and gerundives exist in other languages.
Example:
The finite verbs are the underlined words.

The Crow and the Fox

One day a crow finds a tasty piece of cheese. She picks it up, flaps her wings, and flies to a high branch of a tree to eat it.

Noun Phrase

What is Noun?

• Noun is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, idea, or concept, or anything considered as noun

Note

• There are more nouns in the English Language than any other kind of words.

See the Noun examples

• Persons: girl, boy, instructor, student, Mr. Smith, Peter, president 
• Animals: dog, cat, shark, hamster, fish, bear, flea 
• Places: gym, store, school, Lake Minnetonka, Minnesota, village, Europe
• Things: computer, pen, notebook, mailbox, bush, tree, cornflakes 
• Ideas: liberty, panic, attention, knowledge, compassion, worship

The Functions of Nouns in Sentences

• Subject of the sentence 
• Predicate Noun (also Predicate Nominative or Subjective Complement)
• Appositive (noun in apposition) 
• Direct object of a verb 
• Indirect object of a verb 
• Object of the preposition 
• Object Complement (Objective Complement)

Gerunds can also be classified as noun
For example:

• I like swimming 
• The word ‘swimming’ is a gerund

Phrase

• A phrase is a group of related words that lacks both a subject and a predicate. Because it lacks a subject and a predicate it cannot act as a sentence.

Noun Phrase

• A noun phrase consists of a pronoun or noun with any associated modifiers, including adjectives, adjective phrases, and other nouns in the possessive case. 
• Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, as the object of a verb or verbal, as a subject or object complement, or as the object of a preposition, as in the following examples: 
• subject
• Small children often insist that they can do it by themselves.

• More examples: 
• object of a verb 
• They have found Eugene's goal.

• object of a preposition
• The arctic explorers were caught unawares by the spring break up.

• subject complement 
• Frankenstein is the name of the scientist not the monster. 

• object complement 
• I consider Loki my favourite cat.

Direct and Indirect Speech

TENSE CHANGE
• When reporting speech the tense usually changes. This is because when we use reported speech, we are usually talking about a time in the past (because obviously the person who spoke originally spoke in the past). The verbs therefore usually have to be in the past too.
• Note : the reporting verbs that are usually used to report imperative sentence are :Tell, other command, ask, warn, remind

1. Present simple-Past tense
direct : Vita said “ I eat fried rice”
indirect : Vita said that she ate fried rice.

2. Past simple-Past perfect
direct : Mother said “ I went to market yesterday”
indirect : Mother said (that) she had gone to market the day before.

3. Future simple-Past future
direct : Dave said “ I will buy an i-pod next week’
indirect : Dave said (that) he would buy an i-pod the week after

4.Present continuous-Past continuous
direct : Gama said “ I’m playing football”
indirect : Gama said he was playing football

5. Past continuous-Past perfect continuous
direct : She said “ I was teaching earlier”
indirect : She said she had been teaching earlier

when we want to report what someone said, we don’t usually repeat their exact words, we use our words, we can use reporting words such as tell say as follow by “that clause”

example :
my mother said that she got up at 4 o’clock

In time expression and pronouns

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
Now Today/tonight Yesterday Tomorrow Last week Next week Ago	Then that day / that night The day before / the previous day The next / following day The previous week The following week / the week after Before

In time expression and pronouns

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
This/these Here pronouns	That/those There They changes according to the context

Type	Form	example
Yes-no question	Ask + if / whether + S + verb wonder etc	do you speak English “ He wondered if I spoke English
Wh-question	Ask + question word + S + verb wonder etc	“what are you watching” She asked what I’m watching

Sometimes we need the report someone’s question , the report question are introduce with the verb ask inquire wonder , want to know , etc

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
will She said, "I'll teach English online tomorrow.“ can She said, "I can teach English online." must She said, "I must have a computer to teach English online.“	would She said she would teach English online tomorrow. could She said she could teach English online.  had to She said she had to have a computer to teach English online.

Modal verb forms also sometimes change:

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
shall She said, "What shall we learn today?" may She said, "May I open a new browser?"	should She asked what we should learn today. might She asked if she might open a new browser.

Note - There is no change to; could, would, should, might and ought too.

DIRECT SPEECH	INDIRECT SPEECH
"I might go to the cinema", he said.	He said he might go to the cinema.

Descriptive Text

1. Definition

•  Descriptive text is the text in written or spoken form which is including some description about something, such as particular person, animals, places/areas, etc.

2. Purpose

• To describe the significant information about a particular person, place or thing.

3. Generic Structure

• Identification: identifies phenomenon to be describe
• Description: describes part, qualities, characteristics

4. Significant Grammatical Features

• Focus on specific Participant
• Use of attributes and identifying Processes
• Frequent use of Epithets and Classifiers in nominal groups
• Use of simple present tens

Natural Bridge National Park

 

Natural Bridge National Park is luscious tropical rainforest.
It is located 110 kilometers south of Brisbane and is reached by following the Pacific Highway to Nerang and then by travelling through the Numimbah Valley. This scenic roadway lies in the shadow of the Lamington National Park.
The phenomenon of the rock formed into a natural ‘arch’ and the cave through which a waterfall cascades is a short one-kilometer walk below a dense rainforest canopy from the main picnic area. Swimming is permitted in the rock pools. Night-time visitors to the cave will discover the unique feature of the glow worms.
Picnic areas offer toilets, barbeque, shelter sheds, water and fireplaces; however, overnight camping is not permitted.

Giraffe

Identification:

• One of the most interesting animals in the zoo is the giraffe. This is the giraffe we saw at the zoo. It is male and is about six meters tall.

Description:

• The giraffe has big brown eyes. They are protected by very thick lashes. This giraffe has brown spots on the skin. This coloring helps protect the giraffe. It also has two short horns on its head.
• Like a camel, it can go for long time without drinking water. One source of water is the leaves which is eats from trees. It is tall, so the giraffe can reach the tender leaves at the top of a tree
• The giraffe has two methods of self protection. If something frightens an adult giraffe, it can gallop away at about fifth kilometers per hour or stay to fight with its strong legs

Introductory "It"

 

1. When the subject is a clause

• When the subject is a clause, the sentence usually begins with it. So instead of saying ‘That he was once a communist is true’, we say, ‘It is true that he was once a communist’. 
• It does not matter whether he comes or not. (Whether he comes or not does not matter.)
• It is required that he should pay the fine. (That he should pay the fine is required.)
• It is clear that he overheard our conversation. (That he overheard our conversation is clear.)
• It is clear that you are not interested in this offer. (That you are not interested in the offer is clear.)
• It cannot be denied that they tried their best to help him. (That they tried their best to help him cannot be denied. )
• It doesn’t matter whether we buy it now or later. (Whether we buy it now or later does not matter. )

2. Introductory it with seem, appear and look

• Introductory it is also used with seem, appear and look when the subject is an infinitive phrase, a phrase with a gerund in it or a clause. 
• It looked doubtful whether she would come
• It seemed strange that she should behave like that.
• It seems possible that she may quit the job.
• It appeared unwise to offend him.
• It does not seem much good going on with the work.

3. Introductory it as an object

• It is sometimes used as the object of the verbs think, feel, deem, count, consider etc. 
• Don’t you think it dangerous to drive so carelessly?
• I consider it a privilege to have this opportunity of welcoming you.
• I think it odd that she doesn’t write to me these days.
• I think it a pity that she could not win.
• We think it improper that he should be so dictatorial.
• He made it clear what he wanted.
• I find it difficult to talk to him.

4. Introductory it in questions

• The introductory it is sometimes used in questions. 
• Who was it that broke the window?
• It is Peter who broke the window.
• Why was it that he stole the bread?
• It was because he was poor that he stole the bread.
• When was it that the manager came? 
• It was at 10 am that the manager came.